Historical outline Turco-Persian tradition

1 historical outline

1.1 beginning of turco-persian symbiosis
1.2 spread of turco-persian tradition
1.3 through centuries
1.4 disintegration
1.5 present
1.6 influence

historical outline
beginning of turco-persian symbiosis

in samanid times began growth of public influence of ulama, learned scholars of islam. ulama grew in prominence samanids gave special support sunnism, in contrast shiite neighbors, buyids. enjoyed strong position in city of bukhara, , grew under samanids successors kara-khanid khanate. kara-khanids established dominance of ulama in cities, , network of recognized islamic authorities became alternative social instrument maintenance of public order. in kara-khanid khanate formed ethnically , dogmatically diverse society. eastern lands of caliphate ethnically , religiously diverse. christians, jews, , zoroastrians numerous, , several minority islamic sects had considerable following. these diverse peoples found refuge in cities. bukhara , samarkand swelled , formed ethnic , sectarian neighborhoods, of them surrounded walls, each own markets, caravansaraies, , public squares. religious authorities of these non-muslim communities became spokesmen, ulama muslim community, began overseeing internal communal affairs. thus, alongside rise of ulama, there corresponding rise in political importance of religious leaders of other doctrinal communities.

the ruling institution dominated turks various tribes, highly urbanized , persianized, rural , still turkic. managed bureaucrats , ulama used both persian , arabic, literati participated in both arabic , persian traditions of high culture of wider islamicate world. composite culture beginning of turko-persian variant of islamicate culture. persianate centered on lettered tradition of persian origin, turkic because many generations patronized rulers of turkic ancestry, , islamicate because islamic notions of virtue, permanence, , excellence channeled discourse public issues , religious affairs of muslims, presiding elite. combination of these elements in islamic society had strong impact on religion, because islam disengaged arabic background , bedouin traditions , became far richer, more adaptable, , universal culture. appearance of new persian, ascendancy of turks power in place of persian samanids, rise of non-arabic ulama in cities, , development of ethnically , confessionally complex urban society marked emergence of new turco-persian islamic culture. turco-persian islamic culture exported wider region of western , southern asia, transformation became increasingly evident.

the stages of turco-persian cultural synthesis in islamic world marked cultural, social , political tensions , competition among turks, persians, , arabs, despite egalitarianism of islamic doctrine. complex ideas around non-arabs in muslim world lead debates , changing attitudes can seen in numerous arabic, persian , turkic writings before mongol expansion.

the perso-islamic tradition tradition turkic groups played important role in military , political success while culture raised both , under influence of muslims used persian cultural vehicle. in short, turco-persian tradition features persian culture patronized turcophone rulers.

spread of turco-persian tradition

the turco-persian islamic culture emerged under persianate samanids, ghaznavids, , kara-khanids carried succeeding dynasties western , southern asia, in particular, seljuks (1040-1118), , successor states, presided on persia, syria, , anatolia until thirteenth century, , ghaznavids, in same period dominated greater khorasan , of present-day pakistan. these 2 dynasties drew center of islamic world eastward. institutions stabilized islamic society form persist, @ least in western asia, until twentieth century.

the turco-persian distinctive islamic culture flourished hundreds of years, , faded under imposed modern european influences. turco-persian islamic culture mix of arabic, persian, , turkic elements blended in ninth , tenth centuries became predominant culture of ruling , elite classes of west, central , south asia.

the ghaznavids moved capital ghazni lahore, turned center of islamic culture. under ghaznavids poets , scholars kashgar, bukhara, samarkand, baghdad, nishapur, , ghazni congregated in lahore. thus, turco-persian culture brought deep india , carried further in thirteenth century.

the seljuq successors of kara-khanid khanate in transoxiana brought culture westward persia, iraq, , syria. seljuqs won decisive battle ghaznavids , swept khorasan, brought turco-persian islamic culture westward western persia , iraq. persia , central asia became heartland of persianate language , culture. seljuks came dominate iraq, syria, , anatolia, carried turco-persian culture beyond, , made culture of courts in region far west mediterranean sea. seljuks subsequently gave rise sultanate of rum in anatolia, while taking thoroughly persianised identity them, giving more profound , noted history there. under seljuks , ghaznavids islamic religious institutions became more organized , sunni orthodoxy became more codified. great jurist , theologian al-ghazali proposed synthesis of sufism , sharia became basis of richer islamic theology. formulating sunni concept of division between temporal , religious authorities, provided theological basis existence of sultanate, temporal office alongside caliphate, time merely religious office. main institutional means of establishing consensus of ulama on these dogmatic issues madrasas, formal islamic schools granted licensure teach. first established under seljuqs, these schools became means of uniting sunni ulama legitimized rule of sultans. bureaucracies staffed graduates of madrasas, both ulama , bureaucracies under influence of esteemed professors @ madrasas.

the period eleventh thirteenth century cultural blossom time in western , southern asia. shared culture spread mediterranean mouth of ganges, despite political fragmentation , ethnic diversity.

through centuries

the culture of turco-persian world in thirteenth, fourteenth, , fifteenth centuries tested invading armies of inland asia. mongols under genghis khan (1220–58) , timur (tamerlane, 1336-1405) had effect of stimulating development of persianate culture of central , west asia, because of new concentrations of specialists of high culture created invasions, many people had seek refuge in few safe havens, india, scholars, poets, musicians, , fine artisans intermingled , cross-fertilized, , because broad peace secured huge imperial systems established il-khans (in thirteenth century) , timurids (in fifteenth century), when travel safe, , scholars , artists, ideas , skills, , fine books , artifacts circulated freely on wide area. il-khans , timurids deliberately patronized persianate high culture. under rule developed new styles of architecture, persian literature encouraged, , flourished miniature painting , book production, , under timurids prospered turkic poetry, based on vernacular known chaghatai (today called uzbek; of turkic qarluq origin).

in period turco-persian culture of india prospered. mamluk guards, turks , mongols, along persians (now known tajiks), khaljis , afghans, dominated india thirteenth fifteenth centuries, ruling sultans in delhi. society enriched influx of islamic scholars, historians, architects, musicians, , other specialists of high persianate culture fled mongol devastations of transoxiana , khurasan. after sack of baghdad mongols in 1258, delhi became important cultural center of muslim east. delhi sultans modeled life-styles after turkic , persian upper classes, predominated in of western , central asia. patronized literature , music, became notable architecture, because builders drew muslim world architecture produce profusion of mosques, palaces, , tombs unmatched in other islamic country.

in mongol , timurid times predominant influences on turco-persian culture imposed central asia, , in period turco-persian culture became sharply distinguishable arabic islamic world west, dividing zone fell along euphrates. socially, turco-persian world marked system of ethnologically defined elite statuses: rulers , soldiery turkic or turkic-speaking mongols; administrative cadres , literati persian. cultural affairs marked characteristic pattern of language use: new persian language of state affairs , literature; new persian , arabic languages of scholarship; arabic language of adjudication; , turkic language of military.

in sixteenth century arose turko-persian empires of ottomans in asia minor , south eastern europe, safavids in persia, , mughals in india. thus, sixteenth eighteenth centuries territories south eastern europe, caucasus, asia minor east bengal dominated turco-persian dynasties.

at beginning of fourteenth century ottomans rose predominance in asia minor, , developed empire subjugated of arab islamic world south-eastern europe. ottomans patronized persian literature 5 , half centuries and, because asia minor more stable eastern territories, attracted great numbers of writers , artists, in sixteenth century. ottomans developed distinctive styles of arts , letters. unlike persia gradually shed of persianate qualities. gave persian court language, using turkish instead; decision shocked highly persianized mughals in india.

the safavids of fifteenth century leaders of sufi order, venerated turkmen tribesmen in eastern anatolia. patronized persian culture in manner of predecessors. safavids erected grand mosques , built elegant gardens, collected books (one safavid ruler had library of 3,000 volumes) , patronized whole academies. safavids introduced shiism persia distinguish persia society ottomans, sunni rivals west.

tomb of humayun shares similar patterns taj mahal



taj mahal

the mughals, persianized turks had invaded india central asia , claimed descent both timur , genghis khan, strengthened persianate culture of muslim india. cultivated art, enticing courts artists , architects bukhara, tabriz, shiraz, , other cities of islamic world. taj mahal commissioned mughal emperor shah jahan. mughals dominated india 1526 until eighteenth century, when muslim successor states , non-muslim powers of sikh, maratha, , british replaced them.

the ottoman, safavid, , mughal empires developed variations of broadly similar turco-persian tradition. remarkable similarity in culture, particularly among elite classes, spread across territories of western, central , south asia. although populations across vast region had conflicting allegiances (sectarian, locality, tribal, , ethnic affiliation) , spoke many different languages (mostly indo-iranian languages persian, urdu, hindi, punjabi, pushtu, baluchi, or kurdish, or turkic languages turkish, azeri, turkmen, uzbek, or kyrgyz), people shared number of common institutions, arts, knowledge, customs, , rituals. these cultural similarities perpetuated poets, artists, architects, artisans, jurists, , scholars, maintained relations among peers in far-flung cities of turco-persian world, istanbul delhi.

as broad cultural region remained politically divided, sharp antagonisms between empires stimulated appearance of variations of turco-persian culture. main reason safavids’ introduction of shiism persia, done distinguish sunni neighbors, ottomans. after 1500, persian culture developed distinct features of own, , interposition of strong shiite culture hampered exchanges sunni peoples on persia s western , eastern frontiers. sunni peoples of eastern mediterranean in asia minor, syria, iraq, egypt, , sunnis of central asia , india developed independently. ottoman turkey grew more arab muslim neighbors in west asia; india developed south asian style of indo-persian culture; , central asia, gradually grew more isolated, changed relatively little.

disintegration

in seventeenth , eighteenth centuries turco-persian empires weakened europeans discovery of sea route india, , introduction of hand guns, gave horsemen of pastoral societies greater fighting capability. in india, mughal empire decayed warring states. ottoman turkey survived twentieth century. european powers encroached turco-persian region, contributing political fragmentation of region. nineteenth century, european secular concepts of social obligation , authority, along superior technology, shook many established institutions of turco-persia.

by identifying cultural regions of asia middle east, south asia, russian asia, , east asia, europeans in effect dismembered turco-persian islamic world had culturally united vast expanse of asia thousand years. imposition of european influences on asia affected social affairs throughout region persianate culture had once been patronized turkic rulers. in informal relations social life remained unaltered. also, popular customs , notions of virtue, sublimity, , permanence, ideas entailed in islamic religious teaching, persisted relatively unchanged.

present

the twentieth century saw many changes in inland asia further exposed contradictory cultural trends in region. islamic ideals became predominant model discussions public affairs. new rhetoric of public ideals captured interest of peoples throughout islamic world, including area in public affairs turco-persian culture once prominent. islamic moral imagery survived in informal relations emerged model of ideology expressed in virile form in islamic revolution of iran , in islamic idealism of afghanistan mujahedin resistance movement.

the islamic resurgence has been less renewal of faith , dedication public resurfacing of perspectives , ideals relegated less public, informal relations under impact of european secular influences. not medieval islamic ideals, ideas past remained vital many of these peoples, , used interpret problems of contemporary times. turco-persian islamic tradition provided elements have used express shared concerns.

influence

work of iranians can seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including arabic poetry, poets of iranian origin composing poems in arabic made significant contribution. in sense, iranian islam second advent of islam itself, new islam referred islam-i ajam. persian islam, rather original arab islam, brought new areas , new peoples: turks, first in central asia , in middle east in country came called turkey, , of course india. ottoman turks brought form of iranian civilization walls of vienna. [...] time of great mongol invasions of thirteenth century, iranian islam had become not important component; had become dominant element in islam itself, , several centuries main centers of islamic have power , civilization in countries were, if not iranian, @ least marked iranian civilization. [...] center of islamic world under turkish , persian states, both shaped iranian culture. [...] major centers of islam in late medieval , modern periods, centers of both political , cultural power, such india, central asia, iran, turkey, part of iranian civilization. although of spoke various forms of turkish, other local languages, classical , cultural language persian. arabic of course language of scripture , law, persian language of poetry , literature .



-- bernard lewis

with firm guidance of ulema , diverse native traditions transformed uniform mold crossed borders , customs. original diverse traditions consistently shaped conform specific norms embedded in islamic law. 1 notable exception in turco-persian tradition attitude women. original attitude of respect mothers, , protection of sisters , daughters overcame tenets imposed new religion, , survived inherent component of learned new society. idea of slaughtering mothers , daughters, incessantly proclaimed pulpits, remained call action, not action in majority sphere of turco-persian tradition. while best of turco-persian literature venerated , admired, respect women , old traditions of equality survived present times, except areas arab islamic tradition managed entirely replace original native traditions. turkish muslims accepted , embraced pre-islamic traditions , combined them own in form of sufi mysticism. less prominent strict islamic law (sharia) , concept of waging violent external jihad against nonbelievers. instead, islam diffused turkic world through persian sufi influences, sought establish commonality of belief indigenous religious practices. despite myriad of attempts curb it, sufism has survived in turkic zone underlying institution of revival , alternative thinking throughout centuries.