Achievements of the Latin American expedition Alexander von Humboldt

humboldt s decades long endeavor publish results of expedition not resulted in multiple volumes, made international reputation in scientific circles. humboldt came well-known reading public well, popular, densely illustrated, condensed versions of work in multiple languages. bonpland, fellow scientist , collaborator on expedition, collected botanical specimens , preserved them, unlike humboldt had passion publish, bonpland had prodded formal descriptions. many scientific travelers , explorers produced huge visual records, remained unseen general public until late nineteenth century, in case of malaspina expedition, , late twentieth century, when mutis s botanical, 12,000 drawings new granada, published. humboldt, contrast, published , continuously, using , exhausting personal fortune, produce both scientific , popular texts. humboldt s name , fame made travels spanish america, particularly publication of political essay on kingdom of new spain. image premier european scientist later development.

for bourbon crown, had authorized expedition, returns not tremendous in terms of sheer volume of data on new world realms, in dispelling vague , pejorative assessments of new world guillaume-thomas raynal, georges-louis leclerc, comte de buffon, , william robertson. achievements of bourbon regime, in new spain, evident in precise data humboldt systematized , published.

this memorable expedition may regarded having laid foundation of sciences of physical geography, plant geography, , meteorology. key humboldt s meticulous , systematic measurement of phenomena advanced instruments available. closely observed plant , animal species in situ, not in isolation, noting elements in relation 1 other. collected specimens of plants , animals, dividing growing collection if portion lost, other parts might survive.

humboldt depicted american artist charles willson peale, 1805, met humboldt when visited u.s. in 1804

humboldt saw need approach science account harmony of nature among diversity of physical world. humboldt, unity of nature meant interrelation of physical sciences—such conjoining between biology, meteorology , geology—that determined specific plants grew. found these relationships unraveling myriad, painstakingly collected data, data extensive enough became enduring foundation upon others base work. humboldt viewed nature holistically, , tried explain natural phenomena without appeal religious dogma. believed in central importance of observation, , consequence had amassed vast array of sophisticated scientific instruments available. each had own velvet lined box , accurate , portable of time; nothing quantifiable escaped measurement. according humboldt, should measured finest , modern instruments , sophisticated techniques available, collected data basis of scientific understanding.

this quantitative methodology become known humboldtian science. humboldt wrote nature herself sublimely eloquent. stars sparkle in firmament fill delight , ecstasy, , yet move in orbit marked out mathematical precision.

humboldt s naturgemälde, known chimborazo map, depiction of volcano in cross section, detailed information plant geography. illustration published in geography of plants, 1807, in large format (54 cm x 84 cm.)

his essay on geography of plants (published first in french , german, both in 1807) based on novel idea of studying distribution of organic life affected varying physical conditions. famously depicted in published cross-section of chimborazo, approximately 2 feet 3 feet (54 cm x 84 cm) color pictorial, called ein naturgemälde der anden , called chimborazo map. fold-out @ of publication. humboldt first sketched map when in south america, included written descriptions on either side of cross-section of chimborazo. these detailed information on temperature, altitude, humidity, atmosphere pressure, , animal , plants (with scientific names) found @ each elevation. plants same genus appear @ different elevations. depiction on east-west axis going pacific coast lowlands andean range of chimborazo part, , eastern amazonian basin. humboldt showed 3 zones of coast, mountains, , amazonia, based on own observations, drew on existing spanish sources, particularly pedro cieza de león, explicitly referred to. spanish american scientist francisco josé de caldas had measured , observed mountain environments , had earlier come similar ideas environmental factors in distribution of life forms. humboldt not putting forward entirely new, argued finding not derivative either. chimborazo map displayed complex information in accessible fashion. map basis comparison other major peaks. naturgemälde showed first time nature global force corresponding climate zones across continents. assessment of map marked beginning of new era of environmental science, not of mountain ecology of global-scale biogeophysical patterns , processes.

isothermal map of world using humboldt s data william channing woodbridge

by delineation (in 1817) of isothermal lines, @ once suggested idea , devised means of comparing climatic conditions of various countries. first investigated rate of decrease in mean temperature increase in elevation above sea level, , afforded, inquiries regarding origin of tropical storms, earliest clue detection of more complicated law governing atmospheric disturbances in higher latitudes. major contribution climatology.

his discovery of decrease in intensity of earth s magnetic field poles equator communicated paris institute in memoir read him on 7 december 1804. importance attested speedy emergence of rival claims.

his services geology based on attentive study of volcanoes of andes , mexico, observed , sketched, climbed, , measured variety of instruments. climbing chimborazo, established altitude record became basis measurement of other volcanoes in andes , himalayas. other aspects of investigations, developed methods show synthesized results visually, using graphic method of geologic-cross sections. showed volcanoes fell naturally linear groups, presumably corresponding vast subterranean fissures; , demonstration of igneous origin of rocks held of aqueous formation, contributed largely elimination of erroneous views, such neptunism.

humboldt significant contributor cartography, creating maps, particularly of new spain, became template later mapmakers in mexico. careful recording of latitude , longitude led accurate maps of mexico, port of acapulco, port of veracruz, , valley of mexico, , map showing trade patterns among continents. maps included schematic information on geography, converting areas of administrative districts (intendancies) using proportional squares. u.s. keen see maps , statistics on new spain, since had implication territorial claims following louisiana purchase. later in life, humboldt published 3 volumes (1836–39) examining sources dealt voyages americas, pursuing interest in nautical astronomy in fifteenth , sixteenth centuries. research yielded origin of name america , put on map of americas martin waldseemüller.

humboldt s depiction of andean condor, example of detailed drawing

humboldt conducted census of indigenous , european inhabitants in new spain, publishing schematized drawing of racial types , populations distribution, grouping them region , social characteristics. estimated population 6 million individuals. estimated indians forty percent of new spain s population, distribution being uneven; dense in center , south of mexico, least dense in north. presented these data in chart form, easier understanding. surveyed non-indian population, categorized whites (spaniards), negroes, , castes (castas). american-born spaniards, so-called creoles had been painting depictions of mixed-race family groupings in eighteenth century, showing father of 1 racial category, mother of another, , offspring in third category in hierarchical order, racial hierarchy essential way elites viewed mexican society. although american-born spaniards legally racial equals of born in spain, crown policy since bourbons took spanish throne privileged born in iberia. humboldt observed miserable european, without education , without intellectual cultivation, thinks himself superior whites born in new continent. enmity between creoles , peninsular-born whites increasingly became issue in late period of spanish rule, creoles increasingly alienated crown. humboldt s assessment abuses royal government , example of new model of rule in united states eroded unity of whites in new spain. humboldt s writings on race in new spain shaped memorials of liberal, enlightened bishop-elect of michoacán, manuel abad y queipo, presented humboldt printed memorials spanish crown critiquing social , economic conditions , recommendations eliminating them.

one scholar says writings contain fantastical descriptions of america, while leaving out inhabitants, stating humboldt, coming romantic school of thought, believed ... nature perfect till man deforms care. further assessment largely neglected human societies amidst nature. views of indigenous peoples savage or unimportant leaves them out of historical picture. other scholars counter humboldt dedicated large parts of work describing conditions of slaves, indigenous peoples, mixed-race castas, , society in general. showed disgust slavery , inhumane conditions in indigenous peoples , others treated , criticized spanish colonial policies.

humboldt not artist, draw well, allowing him record visual record of particular places , natural environment. many of drawings became basis illustrations of many scientific , general publications. artists whom humboldt influenced, such johann moritz rugendas, followed in path , painted same places humboldt had visited , recorded, such basalt formations in mexico, illustration in vues des cordillères.

the editing , publication of encyclopedic mass of scientific, political , archaeological material had been collected him during absence europe humboldt s urgent desire. after short trip italy joseph louis gay-lussac purpose of investigating law of magnetic declination , stay of 2 , half years in berlin, in spring of 1808, settled in paris. purpose being located there secure scientific cooperation required bringing great work through press. colossal task, @ first hoped occupy 2 years, cost him twenty-one, , remained incomplete.