Final days Évariste Galois

siméon poisson reviewed galois paper on equation theory , declared incomprehensible .

galois returned mathematics after expulsion École normale, although continued spend time in political activities. after expulsion became official in january 1831, attempted start private class in advanced algebra attracted interest, waned, seemed political activism had priority. siméon poisson asked him submit work on theory of equations, did on 17 january 1831. around 4 july 1831, poisson declared galois work incomprehensible , declaring [galois ] argument neither sufficiently clear nor sufficiently developed allow judge rigor ; however, rejection report ends on encouraging note: suggest author should publish whole of work in order form definitive opinion. while poisson s report made before galois july 14 arrest, took until october reach galois in prison. unsurprising, in light of character , situation @ time, galois reacted violently rejection letter, , decided abandon publishing papers through academy , instead publish them privately through friend auguste chevalier. apparently, however, galois did not ignore poisson s advice, began collecting mathematical manuscripts while still in prison, , continued polishing ideas until release on 29 april 1832.

galois fatal duel took place on 30 may. true motives behind duel obscure. there has been speculation reasons behind it. known 5 days before death, wrote letter chevalier alludes broken love affair.

some archival investigation on original letters suggests woman of romantic interest mademoiselle stéphanie-félicie poterin du motel, daughter of physician @ hostel galois stayed during last months of life. fragments of letters her, copied galois himself (with many portions, such name, either obliterated or deliberately omitted), available. letters hint mlle. du motel had confided of troubles galois, , might have prompted him provoke duel himself on behalf. conjecture supported other letters galois later wrote friends night before died. galois cousin, gabriel demante, when asked if knew cause of duel, mentioned galois found himself in presence of supposed uncle , supposed fiancé, each of whom provoked duel. galois himself famously exclaimed: victim of infamous coquette , 2 dupes.

much more detailed speculation based on these scant historical details has been interpolated many of galois biographers (most notably eric temple bell in men of mathematics), such repeated speculation entire incident stage-managed police , royalist factions eliminate political enemy.

as opponent in duel, alexandre dumas names pescheux d herbinville, 1 of nineteen artillery officers acquittal celebrated @ banquet occasioned galois first arrest. however, dumas alone in assertion, , if correct unclear why d herbinville have been involved. has been speculated might have been du motel s supposed fiancé @ time (she married else), no clear evidence has been found supporting conjecture. on other hand, extant newspaper clippings few days after duel give description of opponent (identified initials l.d. ) appear more accurately apply 1 of galois republican friends, ernest duchatelet, imprisoned galois on same charges. given conflicting information available, true identity of killer may lost history.

whatever reasons behind duel, galois convinced of impending death stayed night writing letters republican friends , composing become mathematical testament, famous letter auguste chevalier outlining ideas, , 3 attached manuscripts. mathematician hermann weyl said of testament, letter, if judged novelty , profundity of ideas contains, perhaps substantial piece of writing in whole literature of mankind. however, legend of galois pouring mathematical thoughts onto paper night before died seems have been exaggerated. in these final papers, outlined rough edges of work had been doing in analysis , annotated copy of manuscript submitted academy , other papers.

the galois memorial in cemetery of bourg-la-reine. Évariste galois buried in common grave , exact location still unknown.

early in morning of 30 may 1832, shot in abdomen, abandoned opponents , seconds, , found passing farmer. died following morning @ ten o clock in hôpital cochin (probably of peritonitis), after refusing offices of priest. there plans initiate uprising during funeral, during same time frame leaders heard of general jean maximilien lamarque s death, , rising postponed without uprising occurring until 5 june. galois younger brother notified of events prior galois death. 20 years old. last words younger brother alfred were:

“ne pleure pas, alfred ! j ai besoin de tout mon courage pour mourir à vingt ans !”

(don t cry, alfred! need courage die @ twenty.)

on 2 june, Évariste galois buried in common grave of montparnasse cemetery exact location unknown. in cemetery of native town – bourg-la-reine – cenotaph in honour erected beside graves of relatives.

galois mathematical contributions published in full in 1843 when liouville reviewed manuscript , declared sound. published in october–november 1846 issue of journal de mathématiques pures et appliquées. famous contribution of manuscript novel proof there no quintic formula – is, fifth , higher degree equations not solvable radicals. although abel had proved impossibility of quintic formula radicals in 1824 , ruffini had published solution in 1799 turned out flawed, galois methods led deeper research in called galois theory. example, 1 can use determine, polynomial equation, whether has solution radicals.