Effect on rural population Hukou system

1 effect on rural population

1.1 during great leap forward s famine
1.2 post-1978
1.3 challenges faced migrant workers in market
1.4 children of migrant workers
1.5 impact on rural elderly

effect on rural population


while government invests heavily in education in cities, little no investment in rural education occurs

under hukou system implemented central government in 1958, while holders of non-agricultural hukou status given ration cards everyday necessities, including food , textiles, rural residents forced produce themselves. whereas state provided housing in city, individuals had construct own homes. state invested in education, arranged employment, , provided retirement benefits city residents, , provided none of these services rural citizens. these disparities have left rural populace highly disadvantaged, , tragedies such famine of great leap forward ravaged rural chinese citizens.

during great leap forward s famine

during mass famine of great leap forward 1958 1962, having urban versus rural hukou mean difference between life , death. during period, of approximately 600 million rural hukou residents collectivized village communal farms, agricultural output - after state taxes - source of food. institutionalized exaggeration of output figures local communist leaders , massive declines in production, state taxes during years confiscated food in many rural communes, leading mass starvation , deaths of more 30 million chinese.

the 100 million urban hukou residents, however, fed fixed food rations established central government, declined average of 1500 calories per day @ times still allowed survival during famine. estimated 95% or higher of deaths occurred among rural hukou holders. suppression of news internally, many city residents not aware mass deaths occurring in countryside @ all, essential preventing organized opposition mao s policies.

post-1978

during china’s transition state socialism market socialism (1978-2001), migrants, of whom women, worked in newly created export-processing zones in city suburbs under sub-standard working conditions. there restrictions upon mobility of migrant workers forced them live precarious lives in company dormitories or shanty towns exposed abusive treatment.

the impact of hukou system upon migrant labourers became onerous in 1980s after hundreds of millions ejected state corporations , cooperatives. since 1980s, estimated 200 million chinese live outside officially registered areas , under far less eligibility education , government services, living therefore in condition similar in many ways of illegal immigrants. millions of peasants have left land remain trapped @ margins of urban society. blamed rising crime , unemployment , under pressure citizens, city governments have imposed discriminatory rules. example, children of farm workers (chinese: 农民工; pinyin: nóngmín gōng) not allowed enroll in city schools, , must live grandparents or other relatives in order attend school in hometowns. commonly referred home-staying children. there around 130 million such home-staying children, living without parents, reported chinese researchers.

challenges faced migrant workers in market

many rural migrants find work laborers in cities

with loosening of restrictions on migration in 1980s came large influx of rural residents seeking better opportunities in cities. however, these migrant workers have had confront number of challenges in pursuit of financial security. urban residents received priority on migrants when came employment opportunities, , when migrant workers did find jobs, tend positions little potential growth. while urban workers supported employment benefits , laws favored them on employers in case of disputes, rural hukou holders not privy such substantial protections. , because city officials’ performance evaluated based on prosperity of local residents , local economy, had little motive improve quality of life of migrant workers.

in 2008, central government passed labor contract law, guaranteed equal access jobs, established minimum wage, , required employers provide contracts full-time employees included employment benefits. however, 2010 study revealed rural workers earned 40% less urban workers, , 16% receive employment benefits. migrant workers’ labor rights violated – work excessively long hours in poor conditions, , face physical , psychological harassment.

migrant workers disproportionately affected wage arrears, occurs when employers either fail pay employees on time or in full. although such incidences technically illegal , punishable 7 years’ jail time, wage arrears still occur, , labor contracts , pensions may disregarded. in study conducted @ end of 1990s, 46% of migrant workers missing 3 or more months of pay, , workers hadn’t been paid in decade. fortunately, on past couple of decades prevalence of wage arrears have decreased, , in study conducted 2006-2009, found 8% of migrant workers had experienced wage arrears.

children of migrant workers

following mao’s death in 1976 came economic reforms caused surge in demand in labor market. rural residents rushed fill void, without support of hukou status-based government social programs, many of them forced leave families behind. economic growth throughout years has maintained high demand labor in cities continues filled migrant workers, , in 2000, fifth national population census revealed 22.9 million children between ages of 0-14 living without either 1 or both of parents. in 2010, number had gone 61 million, equal 37.7% of rural children , 21.88% of chinese children. these children cared remaining parent and/or grandparents, , although there 96% school enrollment rate among left behind children, susceptible number of developmental challenges. left behind children more resist authority , experience problems interacting peers; more exhibit unhealthy behaviors such foregoing breakfast , smoking, , have increased likelihood of developing mental health issues, including loneliness , depression. , although left behind children may have greater academic opportunities due parents’ expanded financial capacity, under greater pressure perform academically , more vulnerable school-related stress.

children migrate parents face difficulties not experienced local counterparts

children of rural workers migrate parents face challenges. without local, non-agricultural hukou, migrant children have limited access public social infrastructure. example, urban students’ educational opportunities far superior of migrant student counterparts. central government reformed education system in 1986 , again in 1993, yielding greater autonomy local governments in regulation of education system. limited space , desire protect local interests in turn induced local governments avoid enrolling migrant children in public schools. furthermore, because central government subsidized public schools based on enrollment rates of children local hukous, migrant children required pay higher fees if wanted attend. consequentially, many migrant families elect instead send children private schools cater migrants. however, in order charge students lower enrollment , attendance fees, these institutions must cut spending in other areas, resulting in lower quality of education. school facilities in poor condition, , many teachers unqualified.

in subsequent years, central government has enacted number of reforms, limited impact. in 2001, asserted public schools should primary form of education nation’s children, didn’t specify how financially support schools in enrolling more migrant children, resulting in little change. similarly, in 2003, government called lower fees migrant children, again failed detail how schools pay this. , in 2006, government created new compulsory education act asserted equal rights education , ceded responsibility enrolling migrant children provincial governments. however, failed improve lot of migrant children. students non-local hukou had pay inflated admission fees of 3,000 – 5,000 yuan – out of average annual household income of 10,000 yuan – , required take college entrance exams @ hukou locality, harder college.

the difficulties faced migrant children cause many drop out, , particularly common in middle school years: in 2010, 30% of migrant children enrolled in secondary education. migrant children disproportionately deal mental health issues – 36% versus 22% among local hukou counterparts – , 70% experience academic anxiety. face stigmatization , discrimination based off differences in how dress , speak, , have difficulty interacting other students.

impact on rural elderly

not has mass exodus of rural residents countryside in search of work impacted children of migrant workers, has affected elderly left behind. institution of one-child policy in 1970s, average age in china has undergone upward shift: 82% of migrant workers between ages of 15-44 in 2000. has called question traditional custom of filial piety, , while retired urban workers supported government retirement programs, rural workers must rely on , families. appears effects of migration on left behind elderly ambiguous: while parents of migrant children better off financially , happy economic situation, tend report lower life satisfaction elderly without migrant children. children of migrant workers, parents known experience psychological issues such depression , loneliness, , take care of grandchildren may feel burdened responsibility.