Household registration in the Chinese mainland Hukou system

1 household registration in chinese mainland

1.1 rationale , function
1.2 evolution

1.2.1 pre-1949: origins of hukou system
1.2.2 1949-1978: maoist era
1.2.3 1978-present: post-mao


1.3 effect on rural population

1.3.1 during great leap forward s famine
1.3.2 post-1978
1.3.3 challenges faced migrant workers in market
1.3.4 children of migrant workers
1.3.5 impact on rural elderly


1.4 reform
1.5 hukou conversion today

household registration in chinese mainland

an individual household s register or hukou booklet; local police station hold copy of these records in central register

although hukou system has origins in china dating ancient times, system in current form came being 1958 people’s republic of china hukou registration regulation. until recently, each citizen divided agricultural or non-agricultural hukous (commonly referred rural or urban) , further categorized location of origin. two-fold organization structure linked social policy, , residents held non-agricultural hukou status received benefits not available urban counterparts. internal migration tightly controlled central government, , in past few decades have these restrictions been loosened. while system has played major role in china’s fast economic growth, hukou has promoted , aggravated social stratification , contributed deprivation of many of china’s rural workers. in recent years, steps have been taken alleviate inequalities promulgated hukou system, recent major reforms announced in march , july 2014, included provision eliminated division between agricultural , non-agricultural hukou status.

rationale , function

in original legislation, hukou system justified created to

“maintain social order, protect rights , interests of citizens , of service establishment of socialism”.

the central government asserted because rural areas had greater capacity absorb , use excess labor, majority of population should concentrated in these regions. furthermore, free movement of people considered dangerous, lead overpopulation of cities , threaten agricultural production. under hukou system, rural population structured serve support urban industrialization, both in agricultural production , workers state owned businesses..

in reality, hukou system served other ulterior motives well. after establishing people’s republic of china in 1949, chinese communist party enacted policies based on notions of stability , rapid modernization, , hukou system no exception. urban areas have historically been authoritarian regimes vulnerable: combat this, central government gave preferential treatment city residents, hoping prevent uprisings against state, particularly in years when susceptible rebellion. structure of hukou system bolstered power of central government on urban citizens: making city residents dependent upon government aspects of daily life, central government force obedience problematic individuals.

the central government’s efforts contain migration has been major factor in rapid development of chinese economy. tight check on migration urban areas has helped prevent emergence of number of problems faced many other developing countries. example, appearance of slums outside of urban areas due massive influx of individuals searching work has not been issue, nor have poor health conditions due high population density. , regardless of other imperfections, hukou system’s ability maintain stability has contributed china’s economic rise.

evolution
pre-1949: origins of hukou system

the legacy of chinese hukou system may traced pre-dynastic era, 21st century bc. in forms, household registration system used purposes of taxation , conscription, regulating migration. 2 models of hukou system xiangsui , baojia systems. xiangsui system, established under western zhou dynasty (circa 11th-8th centuries bc) used method of organizing , categorizing urban , rural land. function of baojia system, propagated lord shang yang of 4th century bc, create system of accountability within groups of citizens: if 1 person within group violated strict rules in place, in group suffer. structure later utilized , expanded upon during qin dynasty (221-207 bce) purposes of taxation, population control, , conscription.

precursors hukou system used during qing dynasty monitor individuals , raise funds war

the first formal codification of hukou system arose @ end of qing dynasty (1644-1912) 1911 huji law. although movement nominally free under statute, registration of individuals government required, , used government pursue communist forces , basis taxation funding of wars. law expanded upon baojia system, , intended establish sense of stability.

in period following fall of qing dynasty, china ruled various actors, each of employed system of household or personal identification. during japanese occupation, japanese employed system used identify under rule , fund war effort. similarly, guomintang utilized system monitor activities of opponents, chinese communist party, , chinese communist party in turn used system called lianbao, bundled families groups of 5 in order aid in tracking , impeding counterrevolutionaries.

1949-1978: maoist era

at time of founding in 1949, people’s republic of china highly agricultural nation. 89% of citizens lived in rural areas – 484 million resided in countryside, versus 58 million in city. however, efforts industrialize increased, more , more rural residents flocked cities in search of better economic opportunities: between 1957 , 1960, there 90.9% increase in urban labor force.

a major objective of hukou system implemented central government control stream of resources moving away agricultural sector. instability , high rates of movement characterized years following establishment of nation impeded central government’s plan society , economy. although hukou system in current form not officially brought being until 1958, years preceding establishment characterized growing efforts chinese communist party assert control on populace. in 1950, minister of public security, luo reiqing, published statement detailing vision implementation of hukou system in new era. 1954, rural , urban citizens had been registered state, , rigorous regulations on conversion of hukou status had been implemented. these required applicants have paperwork documenting employment, acceptance university, or immediate family relations in city in order eligible. in march of same year, ministry of interior , ministry of labor issued joint directive control blind influx of peasants cities, proclaimed henceforth, employment of rural workers in city firms controlled entirely local labor bureaus.

on january 9, 1958, people’s republic of china hukou registration regulation signed law. divided populace nongmin, agricultural hukou, , shimin, non-agricultural hukou, , grouped citizens locality. key difference, however, lied in distinction between agricultural , non-agricultural hukou status. because central government prioritized industrialization, state welfare programs, tied hukou status, heavily favored urban residents; holders of agricultural hukous unable access these benefits , saddled inferior welfare policies. furthermore, transfer of hukou status highly restricted, official quotas @ 0.15-0.2% per year , actual conversion rates @ 1.5%. in following years, government oversight on movement of people expanded. in 1964, greater limits imposed on migration big cities, particularly major ones beijing , shanghai, , in 1977 these regulations furthered. throughout era, hukou system used instrument of command economy, helping central government implement plan industrializing nation.

1978-present: post-mao

from establishment of people’s republic of china until chairman mao’s death in 1976, central government tightened control on migration, , 1978, intranational movement controlled entirely government. because living “outside system” virtually impossible, movement of people state-sponsored.

however, deng xiaoping s rise power in 1978 came initiation of reforms steadily began alleviate of disparity between agricultural , non-agricultural hukou holders. restrictions have been loosened on movement rural areas smaller cities, although migration large cities such beijing , tianjin still heavily regulated. greater autonomy has been ceded local governments in deciding quotas , eligibility criteria converting hukou status. legislation has been enacted allow migrant workers obtain temporary residency permits, although these permits not allow them access same benefits possessed urban residents. however, living outside system more practical used be, number of migrant workers don’t acquire temporary residency permits – because don’t have resources or concrete employment offers – , such live in danger of being forced return countryside. , in 2014, central government announced reform among other things eliminated division between agricultural , non-agricultural hukou status.

effect on rural population


while government invests heavily in education in cities, little no investment in rural education occurs

under hukou system implemented central government in 1958, while holders of non-agricultural hukou status given ration cards everyday necessities, including food , textiles, rural residents forced produce themselves. whereas state provided housing in city, individuals had construct own homes. state invested in education, arranged employment, , provided retirement benefits city residents, , provided none of these services rural citizens. these disparities have left rural populace highly disadvantaged, , tragedies such famine of great leap forward ravaged rural chinese citizens.

during great leap forward s famine

during mass famine of great leap forward 1958 1962, having urban versus rural hukou mean difference between life , death. during period, of approximately 600 million rural hukou residents collectivized village communal farms, agricultural output - after state taxes - source of food. institutionalized exaggeration of output figures local communist leaders , massive declines in production, state taxes during years confiscated food in many rural communes, leading mass starvation , deaths of more 30 million chinese.

the 100 million urban hukou residents, however, fed fixed food rations established central government, declined average of 1500 calories per day @ times still allowed survival during famine. estimated 95% or higher of deaths occurred among rural hukou holders. suppression of news internally, many city residents not aware mass deaths occurring in countryside @ all, essential preventing organized opposition mao s policies.

post-1978

during china’s transition state socialism market socialism (1978-2001), migrants, of whom women, worked in newly created export-processing zones in city suburbs under sub-standard working conditions. there restrictions upon mobility of migrant workers forced them live precarious lives in company dormitories or shanty towns exposed abusive treatment.

the impact of hukou system upon migrant labourers became onerous in 1980s after hundreds of millions ejected state corporations , cooperatives. since 1980s, estimated 200 million chinese live outside officially registered areas , under far less eligibility education , government services, living therefore in condition similar in many ways of illegal immigrants. millions of peasants have left land remain trapped @ margins of urban society. blamed rising crime , unemployment , under pressure citizens, city governments have imposed discriminatory rules. example, children of farm workers (chinese: 农民工; pinyin: nóngmín gōng) not allowed enroll in city schools, , must live grandparents or other relatives in order attend school in hometowns. commonly referred home-staying children. there around 130 million such home-staying children, living without parents, reported chinese researchers.

challenges faced migrant workers in market

many rural migrants find work laborers in cities

with loosening of restrictions on migration in 1980s came large influx of rural residents seeking better opportunities in cities. however, these migrant workers have had confront number of challenges in pursuit of financial security. urban residents received priority on migrants when came employment opportunities, , when migrant workers did find jobs, tend positions little potential growth. while urban workers supported employment benefits , laws favored them on employers in case of disputes, rural hukou holders not privy such substantial protections. , because city officials’ performance evaluated based on prosperity of local residents , local economy, had little motive improve quality of life of migrant workers.

in 2008, central government passed labor contract law, guaranteed equal access jobs, established minimum wage, , required employers provide contracts full-time employees included employment benefits. however, 2010 study revealed rural workers earned 40% less urban workers, , 16% receive employment benefits. migrant workers’ labor rights violated – work excessively long hours in poor conditions, , face physical , psychological harassment.

migrant workers disproportionately affected wage arrears, occurs when employers either fail pay employees on time or in full. although such incidences technically illegal , punishable 7 years’ jail time, wage arrears still occur, , labor contracts , pensions may disregarded. in study conducted @ end of 1990s, 46% of migrant workers missing 3 or more months of pay, , workers hadn’t been paid in decade. fortunately, on past couple of decades prevalence of wage arrears have decreased, , in study conducted 2006-2009, found 8% of migrant workers had experienced wage arrears.

children of migrant workers

following mao’s death in 1976 came economic reforms caused surge in demand in labor market. rural residents rushed fill void, without support of hukou status-based government social programs, many of them forced leave families behind. economic growth throughout years has maintained high demand labor in cities continues filled migrant workers, , in 2000, fifth national population census revealed 22.9 million children between ages of 0-14 living without either 1 or both of parents. in 2010, number had gone 61 million, equal 37.7% of rural children , 21.88% of chinese children. these children cared remaining parent and/or grandparents, , although there 96% school enrollment rate among left behind children, susceptible number of developmental challenges. left behind children more resist authority , experience problems interacting peers; more exhibit unhealthy behaviors such foregoing breakfast , smoking, , have increased likelihood of developing mental health issues, including loneliness , depression. , although left behind children may have greater academic opportunities due parents’ expanded financial capacity, under greater pressure perform academically , more vulnerable school-related stress.

children migrate parents face difficulties not experienced local counterparts

children of rural workers migrate parents face challenges. without local, non-agricultural hukou, migrant children have limited access public social infrastructure. example, urban students’ educational opportunities far superior of migrant student counterparts. central government reformed education system in 1986 , again in 1993, yielding greater autonomy local governments in regulation of education system. limited space , desire protect local interests in turn induced local governments avoid enrolling migrant children in public schools. furthermore, because central government subsidized public schools based on enrollment rates of children local hukous, migrant children required pay higher fees if wanted attend. consequentially, many migrant families elect instead send children private schools cater migrants. however, in order charge students lower enrollment , attendance fees, these institutions must cut spending in other areas, resulting in lower quality of education. school facilities in poor condition, , many teachers unqualified.

in subsequent years, central government has enacted number of reforms, limited impact. in 2001, asserted public schools should primary form of education nation’s children, didn’t specify how financially support schools in enrolling more migrant children, resulting in little change. similarly, in 2003, government called lower fees migrant children, again failed detail how schools pay this. , in 2006, government created new compulsory education act asserted equal rights education , ceded responsibility enrolling migrant children provincial governments. however, failed improve lot of migrant children. students non-local hukou had pay inflated admission fees of 3,000 – 5,000 yuan – out of average annual household income of 10,000 yuan – , required take college entrance exams @ hukou locality, harder college.

the difficulties faced migrant children cause many drop out, , particularly common in middle school years: in 2010, 30% of migrant children enrolled in secondary education. migrant children disproportionately deal mental health issues – 36% versus 22% among local hukou counterparts – , 70% experience academic anxiety. face stigmatization , discrimination based off differences in how dress , speak, , have difficulty interacting other students.

impact on rural elderly

not has mass exodus of rural residents countryside in search of work impacted children of migrant workers, has affected elderly left behind. institution of one-child policy in 1970s, average age in china has undergone upward shift: 82% of migrant workers between ages of 15-44 in 2000. has called question traditional custom of filial piety, , while retired urban workers supported government retirement programs, rural workers must rely on , families. appears effects of migration on left behind elderly ambiguous: while parents of migrant children better off financially , happy economic situation, tend report lower life satisfaction elderly without migrant children. children of migrant workers, parents known experience psychological issues such depression , loneliness, , take care of grandchildren may feel burdened responsibility.

reform

over past few decades, chinese central government has taken steps towards reforming hukou system. years 1979-1991 saw first steps taken in relaxing hukou system. in october 1984, central government released document on issue of peasants settling down in cities, mandated local governments accept rural migrants cities part of non-agricultural population. followed in july , september 1985 interim provisions on management of transient population in cities , regulations on resident identity card, respectively. former overturned previous law limited migrants 3 months’ stay in city without obtaining urban hukou or returning home introducing temporary residency permits,and latter directed citizens on age of 16 apply id while increasing access jobs in cities migrants. allowed migration 6.5 million young people cities reunion of 2 million couples. then, in 1989, chinese government published notice on strictly controlling excessive growth of urbanization, seemed act check on reforms passed in previous years, calling continued management of migration , strict monitoring prevent abuse of system.

the following decades until 2014 characterized continued opening of hukou system. 1992 saw introduction of “blue stamp hukou”, allowed invested 100 million yuan in specified areas, secured white-collar job, or bought commercial real estate acquire urban hukou in cities. program expanded in 1999 include more cities. blue stamp hukou legislation followed in 1997 pilot scheme reform of hukou system in small towns , instructions on improving management of rural hukou system. these allowed migrant workers register permanent residents equal access urban privileges in small towns, , made official in 2012 in notice on actively yet prudently pushing forward reform of hukou system management. these steps toward reform interrupted in 2003 administrative permit laws, reversed of made progress , forced many migrant workers return home.

the year 2014 saw drastic changes in hukou policy. in march, central government released new national urbanization plan, goals improve structure of urbanization, increase hukou status conversion, , support overall sustainable development. along these lines, legislation detailed intentions grant 100 million urban hukou , decrease overall floating population proportion relative total chinese population 17% 15%, beginning in 2016 , aims reach these objectives 2020. in july of same year, government published opinions on further promoting reform of hukou system, moved ease restrictions on movement towns , cities based on size. included total abolishment of restrictions on towns , small cities, gradual removal of regulations on middle-sized cities, case-by-case relaxation of large cities, , maintenance of tight control on largest cities in china. additionally, july 2014 legislation eliminated distinction between agricultural , non-agricultural hukou.

although these legislation appear taking steps in right direction, experts have cautioned optimism. kam wing chan (陳金永 chén jīnyǒng) , buckingham s (2008) article, china abolishing hukou system? argues previous reforms have not fundamentally changed hukou system, have decentralized powers of hukou local governments. conclude hukou system remains active , continues contribute china s rural , urban disparity. bingqin li, associate professor @ university of new south wales, has written new hukou reforms have not been effective in improving quality of life in poorer regions of country. scholars have argued hukou system works in tandem cultural distinctions perpetuate , evolve structure of inequality, despite institutional reform. still, others seem excited, remarking demographic of cities appear changing, more parents choosing bring children along rather leaving them behind.

hukou conversion today

the floating population dynamic monitoring surveys, have been conducted every year since 2010 national health , family planning commission, have reported significant number of migrant workers in fact not interested in converting hukou status. while hukou policy reform has been gradual on years, barriers conversion have been lowered. however, many rural residents hesitant give agricultural hukou status. rural hukou holders, have property rights not afforded urban counterparts, allow them use land both agricultural production , personal use. , steady expansion of cities, property values of land near cities have increased. owners of these tracts of land may elect give agriculture in favor of renting out homes migrant workers. furthermore, continued process of urbanization, land owners near cities can expect central government buy land handsome sum sometime in future. these benefits combined overall improvement in rural social welfare relative in cities have caused many rural residents hesitate in converting hukou status.