Under the nation-states History of the Basques

ebro river winding down la rioja of Álava , on ribera of navarre, both fertile grounds vineyards , cereal crops



battle of nivelle, follow-up donostia s destruction (1813)

self-government in northern basque country came abrupt end when french revolution centralized government , abolished region specific powers recognized ancien régime. french political design intently pursued dissolution of basque identity new french nation, , in 1793 french national ideal enforced terror on population. during period of french convention (up 1795), labourd (sara, itxassou, biriatu, ascain, etc.) went on shaken indiscriminate mass deportation of civilians landes of gascony, confiscations, , death of hundreds. has been argued despite fraternal intent, intervention of french revolution destroyed highly participatory political culture, based on provincial assemblies (the democratic biltzar, , other estates).

the southern basque country mired in constant disputes royal spanish authority—breach of fueros—and talks came deadlock on accession of manuel godoy office. central government started enforce decisions single-handedly, e.g. regional quotas in military mobilization, different basque autonomous governments—navarre, gipuzkoa, biscay, Álava—felt disenfranchised. during war of pyrenees , peninsular war, impending threat self-government on part of spanish royal authority critical war events , alliances—cf. bon-adrien jeannot de moncey s letters, , political developments in gipuzkoa. liberal class supporting self-government quelled spanish authorities following war of pyrenees—court-martial in pamplona of 1796.

manuel godoy s attempt establish in bilbao parallel harbour under direct royal control perceived blatant interference considered internal affairs of basques, , met zamacolada uprising in bilbao, broad-based riot including several cross-class interests, violently quashed intervention of spanish military (1804). offensive on ground accompanied attempt discredit sources of basque self-government castile granted privileges, notably juan antonio llorente s noticias históricas de las tres provincias vascongadas... (1806-1808), commissioned spanish government, praised godoy, , contested native scholars own works—p.p. astarloa, j.j. loizaga castaños, etc. napoleon, stationed in bayonne (castle of marracq), took note of basque dissatisfaction.

while traumatic war developments above pushed basques counter-revolutionary positions, others saw option through. project drafted input of basque revolutionary d.j. garat establish basque principality not implemented in 1808 bayonne statute, different identities acknowledged within crown of spain , framework (of little certitude) basque specificity provided on wording. peninsular war in full swing, 2 short-lived civil constituencies created directly answerable france: biscay (present-day basque autonomous community) , navarre, along other territories north of ebro. napoleonic army, allowed in spain ally in 1808, @ start encountered little difficulty in keeping southern basque districts loyal occupier, tide started turn when became apparent french attitude self-serving. meanwhile, spanish constitution of cádiz (march 1812) ignored basque institutional reality , talked of sole nation within spanish crown, spanish, in turn sparked basque reluctance , opposition. on 18 october 1812, acting biscayan regional council called in bilbao basque militia commander gabriel mendizabal, assembly agreeing on submission of deputies cádiz negotiation request.

not did demand fall on deaf ears, council of cádiz submitted military commander francisco javier castaños bilbao purpose of restoring order. pamplona refused give blank check, navarre s deputy in cádiz asked permission discuss matter , call parliament of navarre (the cortes)—the jurisdictional organ of kingdom. again plea rejected, native commander francisco espoz y mina strong in navarre deciding in turn forbid men pledge oath new constitution.

by end of peninsular war, devastation of maritime commerce of labourd started in war of pyrenees complete, while across bidasoa, san sebastian reduced rubble (september 1813). restoration of ferdinand vii , formal comeback of basque institutions (may–august 1814) saw overturn of liberal stipulations approved on 1812 constitution of cádiz, serial breach of basic fueros provisions (contrafueros) came shake foundations of basque legal framework, such fiscal sovereignty , specificity of military draft. end of trienio liberal in spain brought prominence staunchly catholic, traditionalists, , absolutists in navarre, attempted restore inquisition , established in 1823 so-called comisiones militares, aimed @ orthodoxy , scrutiny of inconvenient individuals. ironically , ferdinand vii ended implementing centralizing agenda of spanish liberals, without of benefits.

first carlist war , end of fueros


embrace of bergara, final act of first carlist war (1839)



railway bridge engineered eiffel s company on ormaiztegi, home town of tomas de zumalacarregui



political spain in 1854, after first carlist war




the gernikako arbola anthem



jose maria iparragirre, volunteer carlists, bard, exile, , emigrant america

fearing lose self-government (fueros) under modern, liberal spanish constitution, basques in spain rushed join traditionalist army led charismatic basque commander tomas de zumalacarregui, , financed largely governments of basque districts. opposing isabeline army had vital support of british, french (notably algerian legion) , portuguese forces, , backing of these governments. irish legion (tercio) virtually annihilated basques in battle of oriamendi.

however, carlist ideology not in prone stand basque specific institutions, traditions, , identity, royal absolutism , church, thriving in rural based environments , totally opposed modern liberal ideas. presented true spaniards, , contributed spanish centralizing drive. despite circumstances , catholicism, many basques came think staunch conservatism not leading them anywhere.

after tomas zumalacarregui s , unexpected death during siege of bilbao in 1835 , further military successes 1837, first carlist war started turn against carlists, in turn widened gap between apostolic (official) , basque pro-fueros parties within carlist camp. echoing widespread malaise, j.a. muñagorri took lead of faction advocating split claimant throne carlos de borbón under banner peace , fueros (cf. muñagorriren bertsoak). dissatisfaction crystallized in 1839 embrace of bergara , subsequent act confirmation of fueros. included promise spaniards respect reduced version of previous basque self-government. pro-fueros liberals strong @ moment in war , poverty stricken pamplona confirmed of above arrangements, signed separate 1841 compromise act (ley paccionada), whereby navarre ceased officially exist kingdom , made spanish province, keeping set of important prerogatives, including control on taxation.

customs moved ebro river on coast , pyrenees, destroyed formerly lucrative bayonne-pamplona trade , of region s prosperity. dismantling of native political system had severe consequences throughout basque country, leaving many families struggling survive after enforcement of french civil code in continental basque region. french legal arrangement deprived many families of customary common lands , had family property divided.

the new political design triggered cross-border smuggling, , french basques emigrated usa , other american destinations in large numbers. account half of total emigration france during 19th century, estimated @ 50.000 100.000 inhabitants. same fate—north , south america altogether—was followed many other basques, during following decades set out basque , other neighbouring ports (santander, bordeaux) in search better life, e.g. bard jose maria iparragirre, composer of gernikako arbola, held basque national anthem. in 1844, civil guard, paramilitary police force (cited in iparragirre s popular song zibilak esan naute), established view defend , spread idea of spanish central state, particularly in rural areas, while 1856 education reform consciously promoted use of castilian (spanish) language.

the economic scene in french basque country, badly affected war developments 1814 , intermittently cut off since 1793 customary trade flow fellow basque districts south, languid , marked small scale exploitation of natural resources in rural milieu, e.g. mining, salt extraction, farming , wool processing, flour mills, etc. bayonne remained main trade hub, while biarritz thrived seaside tourist resort elites (empress eugenie s venue in 1854). during period, Álava , navarre showed little economic dynamism, remaining largely attached rural activity small middle-class based in capital cities—vitoria-gasteiz , pamplona.

the centuries long forge (ironwork) network linked readily available timber, abundant waterways, , proximity of coastal harbours saw final agony, kept operating—north of navarre, gipuzkoa, biscay. critical moment development of heavy metal industry came introduction in 1855 of bessemer blast furnaces mass-production of steel in bilbao area. in 1863 regional council of biscay liberalized exportation of iron ore, , in same year first mining railway line pressed operation. rapid development followed, encouraged dynamic local bourgeoisie, coastal location, availability of technical know-how, inflow of foreign steel industry investors—partnering local family owned group ybarra y cía—as spanish , foreign high demand iron ore. transfer of spanish customs border southern boundary of basque country spanish-french border encouraged inclusion of spain s basque districts in new spanish market, protectionism of favoured in respect birth , growth of basque industry.

the compañía del norte railway company, credit mobilier franchise, arrived @ bordering town of irun in 1865, while french railway cut way along basque coast way hendaye in 1864 (bayonne in 1854). arrival of railway have deep social, economic , cultural impact, sparking both admiration , opposition. expansion of railway network, industry developed in gipuzkoa following different pattern—slower, distributed across different valleys, , centred on metallic manufacturing , processing, local expertise , entrepreneurship.

in run-up third (second) carlist war (1872-1876), implementation of treaties concluding first carlist war faced tensions arising spanish government s attempt alter faits accomplis spirit , print of agreements in respect of finances , taxation, crowning jewels of southern basque country s separate status along specificity of military draft. following instability of spanish republic (1868) , struggle dynastic succession in madrid, 1873 carlists made strong in navarre , expanded territorial grip on southern basque country except capital cities, establishing de facto basque state seat in estella-lizarra, claimant throne carlos vii had settled. ruling carlist government included not judiciary arrangements military matters establishment of civil tribunals, own currency , stamps.

however, carlists failed capture 4 capitals in territory, bringing attrition , gradual collapse of carlist military strength starting in summer 1875. other theatres of war in spain (castile, catalonia) no exception, carlists undergoing wide number of setbacks contributed eventual victory of king alfonso xii s spanish army. columns advanced , took on irun , estella-lizarra february 1876. time rising spanish prime minister canovas del castillo stated no agreement bound him, , went on decree act abolition of basque charters , 1st article proclaiming duties political constitution has imposed on spanish. basque districts in spain including navarre lost sovereignty , assimilated spanish provinces, still preserving small set of prerogatives (the basque economic agreements, , 1841 compromise act navarre).