Modern period History of the Basques

1 modern period

1.1 self-government status , accommodation

1.1.1 navarre divided , home rule
1.1.2 masters of ocean
1.1.3 basque trade area


1.2 under nation-states

1.2.1 revolution , war
1.2.2 first carlist war , end of fueros

modern period

self-government status , accommodation
navarre divided , home rule

basques in present-day spanish , french districts of basque country managed retain large degree of self-government within respective districts, practically functioning separate nation-states. western basques managed confirm home rule @ end of kingdom of castile s civil wars, pledging oath claimant isabella of castile in exchange generous terms in overseas trade. fueros recognised separate laws, taxation , courts in each district.

as middle ages drew close, basques got sandwiched between 2 rising superpowers after spanish conquest of iberian navarre, i.e. france , spain. of basque population ended in spain, or spains , according poly-centric arrangement prevailing under habsburgs. initial repression in navarre on local nobility , population (1513, 1516, 1523) followed softer, compromising policy on part of ferdinand ii of aragon , charles of spain. while heavily conditioned geopolitical situation, kingdom of navarre-bearn remained independent , attempts @ reunification, both in iberian , continental navarre, did not cease 1610—king henry of navarre , france set march on navarre @ moment of assassination.

the protestant reformation made inroads , supported queen jeanne d albret of navarre-bearn. printing of books in basque, on christian themes, introduced in late 16th century basque-speaking bourgeoisie around bayonne in northern basque country. king henry iii of navarre, protestant, converted roman catholicism in order become king henry iv of france ( paris worth mass ). however, reformist ideas, imported via vibrant ways of saint james , sustained kingdom of navarre-bearn, subject intense persecution spanish inquisition , other institutions 1521, in bordering areas, matter close links shaky status of navarre.

the parliament of navarre in pamplona (the 3 states, cortes) kept denouncing king philip ii of spain s breach of binding terms laid out in oath taking ceremony—tension came head in 1592 imposed oath pledging philip iii of spain fraught irregularities—while in 1600 allegations arise of discrimination castilian abbots , bishops navarrese monks sake of nation , pointed kingdom s government (the diputación). combination of factors—suspicion of basques, intolerance different language, religious practices, traditions, high status held women in area (cf. whaling campaigns), along political intrigues involving lords of urtubie in urruña , critical urdazubi abbey—led basque witch trials in 1609.

in 1620 de jure separate lower navarre absorbed kingdom of france, , in 1659 treaty of pyrenees upheld actual spanish , french territorial control , determined fate of vague bordering areas, establishing customs did not exist point , restricting free cross-border access. measures decided implemented of 1680.

the region specific laws underwent gradual erosion , devaluation, more in french basque country in southern districts. in 1660 authority of assembly of labourd (biltzar of ustaritz) curtailed. in 1661 french centralization , nobility s ambition take on , privatize commons unleashed popular rebellion in soule—led bernard goihenetche matalaz —ultimately quelled in blood. however, labourd , biltzar retained important attributions , autonomy, showing independent fiscal system.

masters of ocean

blacksmith dressed in historic attire @ ironwork re-enactment in legazpi



harbour of bayonne in 1755, @ height of trade within guipuzcoan company of caracas

the basques (or biscaynes), proper biscayans, gipuzkoans , lapurdians, thrived on whale hunting, shipbuilding, iron exportation england, trade northern europe , america during 16th century, @ time basques became masters not of whaling, atlantic ocean. however, king philip ii of spain s failed armada invencible endeavour in 1588, largely relying on heavy whaling , trade galleons confiscated reluctant basques, proved disastrous. spanish defeat triggered immediate collapse of basque supremacy on oceans , rise of english hegemony. whaling declined, privateering soared.

many basques found on castilian-spanish empire opportunity promote social position , venture america make living , amass little fortune spurred foundation of present-day baserris. basques serving under spanish flag became renowned sailors, , many of them among first europeans reach america. example, christopher columbus first expedition new world partially manned basques, santa maria vessel made in basque shipyards , owner, juan de la cosa, may have been basque.

other seamen became renowned privateers french , spanish kings alike, namely joanes suhigaraitxipi bayonne (17th century), or Étienne pellot (hendaye), last privateer (early 19th century). end of 16th century, basques conspicuously present in america, notably chile, or potosí. in latter, hear went on cluster around national confederacy engaging in war against one, vicuñas, formed melting pot of spanish colonists , native americans (1620-1625).

a basque trade area

french map of basque districts (mid-18th century)

the basques welcomed philip v—from lineage of king henry iii of navarre—to crown of castile (1700), absolutist outlook inherited grandfather hardly withstand test of basque contractual system. 1713 treaty of utrecht (see basque sailors above) , 1714 suppression of home rule in kingdom of aragon , catalonia disquieted basques. did not take long until spanish king, relying on prime minister giulio alberoni, attempted enlarge tax revenue , foster spanish internal market meddling in basque low-tax trade area , moving basque customs ebro coast , pyrenees. overseas , customary cross-pyrenean trade—and extension home rule—under threat, royal advance responded western basques trail of matxinadas, or uprisings, shook 30 towns in coastal areas (biscay, gipuzkoa). spanish troops sent over, , widespread rebellion quelled in blood.

in wake of events, expedition led duke of berwick dispatched quadruple alliance broke spanish territory western pyrenees (april 1719) find gipuzkoans, biscayans , Álavans making formal, conditional recognition of french rule (august 1719). confronted collapsing basque loyalty, king philip v backed down on designs in favour of bringing customs ebro (1719). pardon leaders of rebellion in 1726 paved way understanding of basque regional governments madrid officials, , ensuing foundation of royal guipuzcoan company of caracas in 1728. basque districts in spain kept operating virtually independent republics.

the guipuzcoan company added prosperity of basque districts, exporting iron commodities , importing products such cacao, tobacco, , hides. merchandise imported on spanish heartland in turn incur no duties in customs. vibrant trade followed added flourishing building activity , establishment of pivotal royal basque society , led xavier maria de munibe, encouragement of science , arts.

emigration america did not stop, basques—reputed close solidarity bonds, high organizational skills , industrious disposition—found venturing upper california @ head of expeditions , governor positions, e.g. fermín lasuén, juan bautista de anza, diego de borica, j.j. de arrillaga, etc. @ home, need technical innovations—not encouraged longer spanish crown during last third of 18th century—the virtual exhaustion of forests supplying ironworks, , decline of guipuzcoan company of caracas after end of trade monopoly america heralded major economic , political crisis.

by end of 18th century basques deprived of customary trade america , choked spanish disproportionately high customs duties in ebro river, @ least enjoyed fluent internal market , intensive trade france. navarre s geographic distribution of trade in late 18th century estimated @ 37.2% france (unspecified), 62.3% other basque districts, , 0.5% spanish heartland. on positive note spanish customs exactions imposed on ebro favoured more european orientation , circulation of innovative ideas—labelled many in spain un-spanish —both technical , humanistic, such rousseau s social contract , hailed basque liberals, supported home rule (fueros). cross-pyrenean contacts among basque scholars , public personalities intensified, increasing awareness of common identity beyond district specific practices.

under nation-states
revolution , war


ebro river winding down la rioja of Álava , on ribera of navarre, both fertile grounds vineyards , cereal crops



battle of nivelle, follow-up donostia s destruction (1813)

self-government in northern basque country came abrupt end when french revolution centralized government , abolished region specific powers recognized ancien régime. french political design intently pursued dissolution of basque identity new french nation, , in 1793 french national ideal enforced terror on population. during period of french convention (up 1795), labourd (sara, itxassou, biriatu, ascain, etc.) went on shaken indiscriminate mass deportation of civilians landes of gascony, confiscations, , death of hundreds. has been argued despite fraternal intent, intervention of french revolution destroyed highly participatory political culture, based on provincial assemblies (the democratic biltzar, , other estates).

the southern basque country mired in constant disputes royal spanish authority—breach of fueros—and talks came deadlock on accession of manuel godoy office. central government started enforce decisions single-handedly, e.g. regional quotas in military mobilization, different basque autonomous governments—navarre, gipuzkoa, biscay, Álava—felt disenfranchised. during war of pyrenees , peninsular war, impending threat self-government on part of spanish royal authority critical war events , alliances—cf. bon-adrien jeannot de moncey s letters, , political developments in gipuzkoa. liberal class supporting self-government quelled spanish authorities following war of pyrenees—court-martial in pamplona of 1796.

manuel godoy s attempt establish in bilbao parallel harbour under direct royal control perceived blatant interference considered internal affairs of basques, , met zamacolada uprising in bilbao, broad-based riot including several cross-class interests, violently quashed intervention of spanish military (1804). offensive on ground accompanied attempt discredit sources of basque self-government castile granted privileges, notably juan antonio llorente s noticias históricas de las tres provincias vascongadas... (1806-1808), commissioned spanish government, praised godoy, , contested native scholars own works—p.p. astarloa, j.j. loizaga castaños, etc. napoleon, stationed in bayonne (castle of marracq), took note of basque dissatisfaction.

while traumatic war developments above pushed basques counter-revolutionary positions, others saw option through. project drafted input of basque revolutionary d.j. garat establish basque principality not implemented in 1808 bayonne statute, different identities acknowledged within crown of spain , framework (of little certitude) basque specificity provided on wording. peninsular war in full swing, 2 short-lived civil constituencies created directly answerable france: biscay (present-day basque autonomous community) , navarre, along other territories north of ebro. napoleonic army, allowed in spain ally in 1808, @ start encountered little difficulty in keeping southern basque districts loyal occupier, tide started turn when became apparent french attitude self-serving. meanwhile, spanish constitution of cádiz (march 1812) ignored basque institutional reality , talked of sole nation within spanish crown, spanish, in turn sparked basque reluctance , opposition. on 18 october 1812, acting biscayan regional council called in bilbao basque militia commander gabriel mendizabal, assembly agreeing on submission of deputies cádiz negotiation request.

not did demand fall on deaf ears, council of cádiz submitted military commander francisco javier castaños bilbao purpose of restoring order. pamplona refused give blank check, navarre s deputy in cádiz asked permission discuss matter , call parliament of navarre (the cortes)—the jurisdictional organ of kingdom. again plea rejected, native commander francisco espoz y mina strong in navarre deciding in turn forbid men pledge oath new constitution.

by end of peninsular war, devastation of maritime commerce of labourd started in war of pyrenees complete, while across bidasoa, san sebastian reduced rubble (september 1813). restoration of ferdinand vii , formal comeback of basque institutions (may–august 1814) saw overturn of liberal stipulations approved on 1812 constitution of cádiz, serial breach of basic fueros provisions (contrafueros) came shake foundations of basque legal framework, such fiscal sovereignty , specificity of military draft. end of trienio liberal in spain brought prominence staunchly catholic, traditionalists, , absolutists in navarre, attempted restore inquisition , established in 1823 so-called comisiones militares, aimed @ orthodoxy , scrutiny of inconvenient individuals. ironically , ferdinand vii ended implementing centralizing agenda of spanish liberals, without of benefits.

first carlist war , end of fueros


embrace of bergara, final act of first carlist war (1839)



railway bridge engineered eiffel s company on ormaiztegi, home town of tomas de zumalacarregui



political spain in 1854, after first carlist war




the gernikako arbola anthem



jose maria iparragirre, volunteer carlists, bard, exile, , emigrant america

fearing lose self-government (fueros) under modern, liberal spanish constitution, basques in spain rushed join traditionalist army led charismatic basque commander tomas de zumalacarregui, , financed largely governments of basque districts. opposing isabeline army had vital support of british, french (notably algerian legion) , portuguese forces, , backing of these governments. irish legion (tercio) virtually annihilated basques in battle of oriamendi.

however, carlist ideology not in prone stand basque specific institutions, traditions, , identity, royal absolutism , church, thriving in rural based environments , totally opposed modern liberal ideas. presented true spaniards, , contributed spanish centralizing drive. despite circumstances , catholicism, many basques came think staunch conservatism not leading them anywhere.

after tomas zumalacarregui s , unexpected death during siege of bilbao in 1835 , further military successes 1837, first carlist war started turn against carlists, in turn widened gap between apostolic (official) , basque pro-fueros parties within carlist camp. echoing widespread malaise, j.a. muñagorri took lead of faction advocating split claimant throne carlos de borbón under banner peace , fueros (cf. muñagorriren bertsoak). dissatisfaction crystallized in 1839 embrace of bergara , subsequent act confirmation of fueros. included promise spaniards respect reduced version of previous basque self-government. pro-fueros liberals strong @ moment in war , poverty stricken pamplona confirmed of above arrangements, signed separate 1841 compromise act (ley paccionada), whereby navarre ceased officially exist kingdom , made spanish province, keeping set of important prerogatives, including control on taxation.

customs moved ebro river on coast , pyrenees, destroyed formerly lucrative bayonne-pamplona trade , of region s prosperity. dismantling of native political system had severe consequences throughout basque country, leaving many families struggling survive after enforcement of french civil code in continental basque region. french legal arrangement deprived many families of customary common lands , had family property divided.

the new political design triggered cross-border smuggling, , french basques emigrated usa , other american destinations in large numbers. account half of total emigration france during 19th century, estimated @ 50.000 100.000 inhabitants. same fate—north , south america altogether—was followed many other basques, during following decades set out basque , other neighbouring ports (santander, bordeaux) in search better life, e.g. bard jose maria iparragirre, composer of gernikako arbola, held basque national anthem. in 1844, civil guard, paramilitary police force (cited in iparragirre s popular song zibilak esan naute), established view defend , spread idea of spanish central state, particularly in rural areas, while 1856 education reform consciously promoted use of castilian (spanish) language.

the economic scene in french basque country, badly affected war developments 1814 , intermittently cut off since 1793 customary trade flow fellow basque districts south, languid , marked small scale exploitation of natural resources in rural milieu, e.g. mining, salt extraction, farming , wool processing, flour mills, etc. bayonne remained main trade hub, while biarritz thrived seaside tourist resort elites (empress eugenie s venue in 1854). during period, Álava , navarre showed little economic dynamism, remaining largely attached rural activity small middle-class based in capital cities—vitoria-gasteiz , pamplona.

the centuries long forge (ironwork) network linked readily available timber, abundant waterways, , proximity of coastal harbours saw final agony, kept operating—north of navarre, gipuzkoa, biscay. critical moment development of heavy metal industry came introduction in 1855 of bessemer blast furnaces mass-production of steel in bilbao area. in 1863 regional council of biscay liberalized exportation of iron ore, , in same year first mining railway line pressed operation. rapid development followed, encouraged dynamic local bourgeoisie, coastal location, availability of technical know-how, inflow of foreign steel industry investors—partnering local family owned group ybarra y cía—as spanish , foreign high demand iron ore. transfer of spanish customs border southern boundary of basque country spanish-french border encouraged inclusion of spain s basque districts in new spanish market, protectionism of favoured in respect birth , growth of basque industry.

the compañía del norte railway company, credit mobilier franchise, arrived @ bordering town of irun in 1865, while french railway cut way along basque coast way hendaye in 1864 (bayonne in 1854). arrival of railway have deep social, economic , cultural impact, sparking both admiration , opposition. expansion of railway network, industry developed in gipuzkoa following different pattern—slower, distributed across different valleys, , centred on metallic manufacturing , processing, local expertise , entrepreneurship.

in run-up third (second) carlist war (1872-1876), implementation of treaties concluding first carlist war faced tensions arising spanish government s attempt alter faits accomplis spirit , print of agreements in respect of finances , taxation, crowning jewels of southern basque country s separate status along specificity of military draft. following instability of spanish republic (1868) , struggle dynastic succession in madrid, 1873 carlists made strong in navarre , expanded territorial grip on southern basque country except capital cities, establishing de facto basque state seat in estella-lizarra, claimant throne carlos vii had settled. ruling carlist government included not judiciary arrangements military matters establishment of civil tribunals, own currency , stamps.

however, carlists failed capture 4 capitals in territory, bringing attrition , gradual collapse of carlist military strength starting in summer 1875. other theatres of war in spain (castile, catalonia) no exception, carlists undergoing wide number of setbacks contributed eventual victory of king alfonso xii s spanish army. columns advanced , took on irun , estella-lizarra february 1876. time rising spanish prime minister canovas del castillo stated no agreement bound him, , went on decree act abolition of basque charters , 1st article proclaiming duties political constitution has imposed on spanish. basque districts in spain including navarre lost sovereignty , assimilated spanish provinces, still preserving small set of prerogatives (the basque economic agreements, , 1841 compromise act navarre).